Even Gilbert Joseph, who defends to a degree Hobsbawm's views, agrees that the political strategies of the peasants were not archaic "in the sense of being outmoded or pre-political.". Richard W. Slatta, "Banditry as Political Participation in Latin America," in Criminal Justice History: An International Annual 11 (1990): 171-187. Guerrilla popular uprisings (casting "banditry" as an expression of the struggle for freedom) against outside despotism in Corsica in the mid-eighteenth century, and Greece in the early nineteenth, caught public imagination. New York, 1968. A politically powerful family could insulate bandits from police and legal authorities. To compound matters, official government sources often purposely blur the distinction between bandit and revolutionary. In postindependence Greece Klephtic heroes figured prominently in nationalist rhetoric. Consequently, it is difficult at the local level to distinguish those acts that can be called personal (such as a vendetta over a matter of honor) from those that can be labeled political (such as protecting the political interests of the elite). Geschichte des niederen jdischen Volkes in Deutschland: Eine Studie ber historisches Gaunertum, Bettelwesen und Vagantentum. So does banditry become a historiographical discourse about order, justice, and freedom. The legal term in the Holy Roman Empire was Acht or Reichsacht, translated as "Imperial ban". Hobsbawm distinguished bandits from gangs drawn from the professional underworld and from communities for whom raiding was a normal way of life (such as the Bedouins). It was a form of crime that rose out of political and social crisis, especially in areas over which the government could exercise only very little control, above all mountainous regions and often frontier zones. Two pioneer historians who emphasized the social aspects of banditry were Franco Molfese and Eric Hobsbawm. In early Republican China, the growth of warlord armies during the Warlord era was also accompanied by a dramatic increase in bandit activity exploiting the lawlessness. "Bandits and Boundaries in Sardinia." He and his gang invaded isolated farmhouses, terrorizing and torturing the female occupants into giving up their valuables. Violent retribution was "justice," a private affair not to be reported to the state. As with mammals, birds come in all forms, leading to a delightfully poetic sampling of collective nouns, from convocations to murders. Blok argued that there is more to brigandage than voicing popular unrest. (They mainly protect the surrounding villages from a group of bandits.) Bandits and Bureaucrats: The Ottoman Route to State Centralization. Morelia, Mexico: Instituto Michoacano de Cultura; Instituto de Investigaciones Dr. Jos Mara Lus Mora, 1999. The persistence or decline of banditry depends upon a complex interplay of variables, including the social structure and political ecology of a particular region; the nature and distribution of property and capital accumulation (whether landed or movable and precarious, such as livestock) and the means available to legitimate it; the presence or absence of trust and its relationship to the development of civil society; underdeveloped electoral processes, which may encourage strong-arm tactics; and the predominance of permanent insecurity rather than permanent misery at the grass roots, the former being more conducive to banditry. Turpin's popular image entails many legends. That peasants were often misguided and ultimately shifted their loyalties only serves to demonstrate that they are incapable by nature of taking legitimate mass political actionunless, as Rousseau intimated, they are under the leadership of the more enlightened urban elites.
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